Chapter 4.History.
FOREST SOCIETY AND COLONIALISM
Glossary
1. Sleepers, Wooden
planks laid across railway tracks: they hold the tracks in position
2.
Plantation. Single species planted in
straight lines.
3. Scientific
Forestry. A system of cutting trees controlled
by forest department, in which old trees are cut, and new ones planted.
4. Nomadic.
People who wander from one place to another. They do not lead a settled life. 5. Commercial Farming. Where agricultural crops are raised for trade
and commerce.
6. Tribes. Groups of people who live away from cities
and towns. They have their own culture,
language and religion etc.
7. Pastures
are positions of the land covered with grass shrubs on which animals graze
freely in the rural environment.
II. NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS
(Page 96)
Q. 1. Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial
period affected the following groups of people:
Shifting cultivators
Nomadic
and pastoralist communities
Firms trading in timber / forest produce
Plantation
owners
Kings / British officials engaged
in shikar
Ans. Changes in forest
management in the colonial period resulted in severe hardships for the
villagers across the country.
(i)
Shifting cultivators. Banning of
shifting cultivation resulted in displacement of many communities from their
homes in the forests. Many were reduced
to the level of starvation of the displaced many changed their occupation. Some took to trading in forest products or
became labourers.
Still others rebelled, eg
Birsa Munda of Chhotanagpur, Sita Ram Raju of Andhra.
Changes enforced alien
concepts of private property. -
Local
people were henceforth forced to pay taxes.
-
It also led to penetration of tribal areas by outsiders from the
plains.
(ii) Nomadic and pastoralist
communities. Grazing in forests was
restricted by the colonists. In the
process many nomadic and pastoral communities like Korava, Karacha and Yerukala
of Madras Presidency lost their means of livelihood. Some as labourers, were forced to take up
occupations like working in factories / plantations or mines others took to
rebellion and were labeled as criminal tribes.
(iii) Firms trading in timber and forest products. These firms were largely controlled by European
traders. They were vested with the sole
right to trade in forest products and timber.
These firms cleared large natural forests which had a variety of trees
and replaced them by one type of trees - sal or teak to meet the growing demand
of Europeans as they were suitable for building ships and railway
sleepers. This indiscriminate plunder of
forest resources led to deforestation and ecological disbalance The Adivasi
communities like Banjaras who were for generations in this occupation were
displaced, reduced to starvation, or forced to work as labourers. Many joined the ranks of rebels.
(iv) Plantation owners. Changes in forest management favored the
plantation owners who were mostly Europeans.
They were given a free hand to destroy natural forests to make way for
tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe's growing need for these
commodities. Plantation owners
contributed largely to deforestation in India.
Their activities led to penetration of tribal areas by outsiders. They developed the alien concept of private
property in forest society
(v) Kings / British officials engaged in
Shikar. Though the forest laws deprived
the forest dwellers the right to hunt, the kings and British officials continued
to engage in big game. Hunting of wild
animals was seen as a sport, a form of civilizing mission. Big animals like tigers, wolves, leopards
were seen as a threat to cultivation.
Rewards were given for killing these large animals. The scale of hunting increased to such an
extent that various species came near to becoming extinct. Later environmentalists and conservators
realized many species needed to be protected not killed
Q. 2. What are the
similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in
Java?
Ans. The colonial managers of Bastar were the
British, while those of Java were the Dutch There were however many
similarities between both the colonial powers in forest management of the
respective areas. In both cases forests
came to be owned by the state.
They restricted villagers from practicing shifting cultivation and
their access to forests. They enacted
laws to allow themselves to exploit forest trees for timber, to build ships and
railway to protect and further their imperial interests.
Policies of
management in both cases resulted in enforcement of alien concepts of private
property, taxes and penetration of forest societies by outsiders. The atrocities of the managers led to
increasing frustration among the forest communities, which found an found in
rebellions. These rebellions though
crushed with a heavy hand were not without results.
teak and sal forests were thus mercilessly cut in India and vast quantities to rise in population, growing urban population and increased raw material
teak and sal forests were thus mercilessly cut in India and vast quantities to rise in population, growing urban population and increased raw material
Q. 3. Between 1880 and 1920,
forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares, from
108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares.
Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:>
Railways>
Shipbuilding
Agricultural expansion
Commercial farming
Tea / Coffee plantations
Adivasis and other peasant users
Ans.Railways. Spread of Railways led to the decline in forest cover on the Indian continent because wood from forests was needed
(i) as fuel to run locomotives.
(ii) to lay railway line sleepers, to hold the tracks together. It has been estimated just one mile of railway track required about 2000 sleepers. By 1946 the length of railway tracks reached over 7,65,000 km. As railways tracks increased the number of trees cut also increased. In Madras, Presidency alone, it is estimated 35,000 trees were cut annually to make sleepers
(iii) Moreover the government gave out contracts to individuals, who driven by profit motive cut trees indiscriminately,
(iv) The first thing the logging contractor did was to build wide roads so that trucks could enter. These roads also ate into forest land.
(v) Thus as railway track, spread through India, larger number of trees were felled.
(ii) Shipbuilding. Shipbuilding was a factor in the depletion of forests. Colonial imperialist Britain needed ships to safeguard and protect her colonies. By early 19th century oak forests were disappearing in England due to constant cutting exported to meet the demands of timber of the Royal Navy.
(iii) Agricultural expansion. This period was a time of agricultural expansion due requirement of British industries.
Moreover the colonial power regarded forests to be wilderness and unproductive, Land under cultivation was seen as a sign of progress. More land under cultivation also mennt increase in source of revenue by taxation. Agricultural expansion could only be achieved by bringing more land under cultivation. This increase was at the expense of forests.
(iv) Commercial farming. Commercial farming wns a fnctor in the loss of forests cover on the Indian continent. With the growth of urbanisation and industrinlisation in Britain, there was an increase in demand for commercial crops like jute, cotton, sugar and wheat. Large tracts of forest lands were cleared and brought under cultivation of commercial crops. These developments were projected as progress.
(v) Tea / Coffee plantations. The term plantations means cutting down of natural forests which had lots of different types of trees and planting of single species in straight rows. The colonial government took over forests and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. The areas were enclosed and cleared of forests and planted with tea or coffee. Thus large areas of natural forests were cleared, leading to loss of forest cover, to make way for tea and coffee plantations.
(vi) Adivasis and other peasant users. The Adivasis and other peasant users also played a role in loss of forest cover. Forests were cut down to meet their different needs - fuel, fodder and leaves. Many adivasis followed primitive form of agriculture of slash and burn or shifting cultivation under this, small piece of land was cleared by felling the trees and cutting the bushes and grass. These were then burnt. Crops were grown on the cleared patch of land only till the soil retained fertility and then the cultivator shifted to a new site. The over dependence of adivasis and other peasants on forest produce like bamboo gum, resin and ivory for trade through banjaras was also a contributory factor in loss of forest cover.
Q. 4. Why are forests affected by wars?
Ans. Both World War I and World War II had a major impact on forests. In India wars led to reckless cutting of forests to meet British war needs. In Java the Dutch followed a scorched earth policy to prevent logs of wood from falling into the hands of the advancing Japanese. The forests during war times became a no man's land and were subject to abundant plunder and destruction.
After Java fell into Japanese hands, the Japanese too exploited the forests for their ends. Many a local people took advantage of war situation and usurped forest lands and expanded cultivation.
Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:>
Railways>
Shipbuilding
Agricultural expansion
Commercial farming
Tea / Coffee plantations
Adivasis and other peasant users
Ans.Railways. Spread of Railways led to the decline in forest cover on the Indian continent because wood from forests was needed
(i) as fuel to run locomotives.
(ii) to lay railway line sleepers, to hold the tracks together. It has been estimated just one mile of railway track required about 2000 sleepers. By 1946 the length of railway tracks reached over 7,65,000 km. As railways tracks increased the number of trees cut also increased. In Madras, Presidency alone, it is estimated 35,000 trees were cut annually to make sleepers
(iii) Moreover the government gave out contracts to individuals, who driven by profit motive cut trees indiscriminately,
(iv) The first thing the logging contractor did was to build wide roads so that trucks could enter. These roads also ate into forest land.
(v) Thus as railway track, spread through India, larger number of trees were felled.
(ii) Shipbuilding. Shipbuilding was a factor in the depletion of forests. Colonial imperialist Britain needed ships to safeguard and protect her colonies. By early 19th century oak forests were disappearing in England due to constant cutting exported to meet the demands of timber of the Royal Navy.
(iii) Agricultural expansion. This period was a time of agricultural expansion due requirement of British industries.
Moreover the colonial power regarded forests to be wilderness and unproductive, Land under cultivation was seen as a sign of progress. More land under cultivation also mennt increase in source of revenue by taxation. Agricultural expansion could only be achieved by bringing more land under cultivation. This increase was at the expense of forests.
(iv) Commercial farming. Commercial farming wns a fnctor in the loss of forests cover on the Indian continent. With the growth of urbanisation and industrinlisation in Britain, there was an increase in demand for commercial crops like jute, cotton, sugar and wheat. Large tracts of forest lands were cleared and brought under cultivation of commercial crops. These developments were projected as progress.
(v) Tea / Coffee plantations. The term plantations means cutting down of natural forests which had lots of different types of trees and planting of single species in straight rows. The colonial government took over forests and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. The areas were enclosed and cleared of forests and planted with tea or coffee. Thus large areas of natural forests were cleared, leading to loss of forest cover, to make way for tea and coffee plantations.
(vi) Adivasis and other peasant users. The Adivasis and other peasant users also played a role in loss of forest cover. Forests were cut down to meet their different needs - fuel, fodder and leaves. Many adivasis followed primitive form of agriculture of slash and burn or shifting cultivation under this, small piece of land was cleared by felling the trees and cutting the bushes and grass. These were then burnt. Crops were grown on the cleared patch of land only till the soil retained fertility and then the cultivator shifted to a new site. The over dependence of adivasis and other peasants on forest produce like bamboo gum, resin and ivory for trade through banjaras was also a contributory factor in loss of forest cover.
Q. 4. Why are forests affected by wars?
Ans. Both World War I and World War II had a major impact on forests. In India wars led to reckless cutting of forests to meet British war needs. In Java the Dutch followed a scorched earth policy to prevent logs of wood from falling into the hands of the advancing Japanese. The forests during war times became a no man's land and were subject to abundant plunder and destruction.
After Java fell into Japanese hands, the Japanese too exploited the forests for their ends. Many a local people took advantage of war situation and usurped forest lands and expanded cultivation.
III. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q. 1. List at least six items around you which come from forests.
Ans. (1) Paper in books, (ii) wood for desks and tables, (iii) dyes that color your clothes (w) honey, coffee, tea, (v) oil in chocolates, (vi) tanin.
Q. 2. Define the term forests.
Ans. A forest is an area with high density of trees.
Q. 3. Define deforestation.
Ans. Disappearance of forests is referred to as deforestation.
Q. 4. (a) Who was Dietrich Brandis? What were his achievements?
(b) What was the prime aim of Brandis's system of scientific forestry?
Ans. (a) Dietrich Brandis was the first Inspector General of Forests of India. His greatest achievement was he set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the 1865 Indian Forest Act.
(b) The prime aim of Brandis's system of scientific forestry was to restrict felling of trees and grazing, so that forests could be preserved for timber production.
Q. 5. Where is Bastar located?
Ans. Bastar is located in the southern most part of Chhattisgarh. It borders states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra.
Q. 6. Give any two local terms for swidden agriculture.
Ans. Dhya, Penda, Jhum, Kumri (any 2).
Q. 7. How did forest laws change lives of forest dwellers?
Ans. Forest laws deprived forest dwellers of their customary rights of food, fodder and hunt example: to hunt for deer, partridges and a variety of small animals.
Q. 8. Under what names is shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture practiced in the following areas: (1) South East Asia (ii) Central America (iii) Africa (iv) Sri Lanka (v) India. Ans. The local names of shifting cultivation in the following areas are
(i)South East Asia - Lading
(ii) Central America ün) Africa Chitmene or Lavy
(iii) Sri Lanka Chena
(iv) India Dhya, Penda, Jhum, Kumri.
9. Write a short note on Surontiko Samin.
Ans. Suruntiko Samin was a villager who lived in Randublatung village, a teak forest in Indonesia. He started a movement questioning state ownership of forests. Under him the movement guined momentum and by 1907, 3,000 families were following his ideas. Some protested by lying down on their lands when the Dutch surveyors came. Others refused to pay taxes, fines or perform any Iabour
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